Summary
Hypospadias is one of the most common birth defects in the world affecting nearly 1% of newborn boys. Hypospadias is the result of disrupted urethral closure where the urethra exits ventrally along the shaft of the penis. The etiology of 70% of urethral closure defects remains unexplained. Androgen signaling in the penis drives cell-to-cell communication between the urethra and the adjacent mesenchyme, which then influences closure of the urethra. Normal penis development requires testosterone. In the absence of testosterone produced by the testis, the urethra fails to close, leading to severe
